History, Consuption of BLUE JEANS (FASHION in U.S History) assignment Research Paper

History, Consuption of BLUE JEANS (FASHION in U.S History) assignment - Research Paper Example It looked dark blue as it was generally colored with indigo, a type of colorant derived from plants in India and America. Almost 20 million tons of indigo is produced for the dyeing of jeans every year, though each pair of jeans requires only a few grams of the dye. It was worn by workers as the fabric was very durable and strong. Gold was found in California in the year 1848 which gave rise to the popular Gold rush, the workers of the gold mine required long lasting cloths that would last long and not be worn off easily. A man called Leob Strauss who lived in New York shifted to San Francisco which is quite close to California and started a wholesale business of supplying clothes, later he changed his name to Levi from Leob, who the founder of the well known Levis Jeans Company. The major problem faced by the miners was that the pockets of their jeans would easily tear away from the jeans, so a person called Jacob Davis thought of an idea to overcome this problem. He had the idea of using metal fasteners to prevent the pockets from tearing away and to hold the pockets and the jeans together. Davis wanted to copyright his idea but due to lack of funds. He could not do so. In the year 1872 Davis sent a written proposal to Strauss, offering him a deal if Strauss agreed to pay fort the copyright, the proposal was accepted by Strauss and Davis started manufacturing copper fasteners. Levi attached a leather label on their jeans in the year 1886; it displayed two horses pulling a pair of jeans from in opposite directions, this was to display and advertise the strength of the jeans, and represented that even if it is pulled by two horses it would not tear apart. Hollywood stared making many western movies in 1930’s, where cowboys generally wore denim waist overalls; jeans were called that back then. This denim waist overall that

Objective Toward Somali Immigrants In The Healthcare Setting Research Paper

Objective Toward Somali Immigrants In The Healthcare Setting - Research Paper Example These include prayer and fire-burning which entails applying a heated stick to the skin. According to Lewis, 1996, those immigrants exposed to modern medicine expect medication for every illness thus may be disappointed when nothing is prescribed. Additionally, they also put their trust in health professionals of the same sex and do not believe in preventive medicine. I believe that in as much as it aims to maintain their cultural heritage, the Somali should give up some of their beliefs and move into the modern day by embracing the technology of science and health. This opinion holds because some of the methods used by the Islam to treat their complications are crude and can end up affecting them even negatively. With their location in the U.S, they have accessibility to the modern methods of healthcare and this will even reduce the spread of certain diseases such as T.B. The Somali are more prone to this because in their culture it is customary for family and friends to eat with their hands from the same plate and drink from a shared cup, according to Putnam and Noor (1999). There are experiences with the Somalis who refuse to be treated for some treatments because of what they uphold in their culture. Somali hesitates to initiate TB treatment because they believe they must discontinue chewing ‘khat’ while undergoing treatment. However, United States Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) states that using the leafy narcotic may affect one’s ability to remember their medication. The family, community and the media enhance the beliefs in modern health by insisting on one seeking medication whenever they are unwell. The media has a key role of agenda-setting in the society and through this; they make their audience aware that adopting proper health practices is advisable. The church advises their members to visit health

European History World War I Essay Example for Free

European History World War I Essay The focal point of this essay is to evaluate and analyze the position of female nurses in World War I. The paper overall could be enumerated about the impact of World War I on the home front to the countries involving especially women. For the purpose references would be taken from predominantly four books. The first one is It’s a long way to Tipperary: British and Irish Nurses in the Great War by Yvonne McEwen and the second one used in this paper is Nurses at the Front: Writing the Wounds of the Great War by Margaret R. Â  Higonnet. The third and fourth book used for this paper would be The woman of Royaumount: A Scottish women’s hospital on the western front by Eileen Crofton and War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa by Joshua S. Goldstein. Apart from all these an article by Margaret H. Darrow would also be used that was published in the American Historical Review Vol. 101, No 1 in February 1996 titled French Volunteer Nursing and the Myth of War Experience in WWI. All these texts would be valuable resources for determining the true position of women during the First World War. Yvonne McEwen book deals with the characters that are often overlooked while dealing with the greater perspective of a vast incident like the First World War. These are the people who practically work behind the scene but make tremendous contribution to the cause but more often than not are not mentioned by academicians. Such characters are the female nurses of the First World War. The author presents a testimony to all those nurses of the First World War who proved to be people with astonishing courage and ability to bear hardship. It is not only the soldiers of the First World War who showed all these qualities but the author mentions that it is the female nurses who went unsung after proving themselves to be no less dedicated to their country and service than the soldiers. The sacrifices of these people are hardly written down and thus the author is instrumental in presenting to us the untold stories of the female nurses and their position in the First World War. At the same time the author mentions the other side of this profession and service where the female nurses is mobilized in a large number to compete among rival nursing service agencies. The net result often proved to be uncalled for. This is because though there was a huge demand of female nurses in the First World War it was desirable that the female nurses participating and volunteering to serve are trained adequately. It is almost a certainty that due to this mobilization in mass numbers the quality of the female nurses was diminishing. In the same context it should also be said that this lack of practicable knowledge was often covered up by the will to serve and work extremely hard. However, the author indicates several accounts that show the humane aspects of the First World War female nurses and their position in the social order as they were viewed by the soldiers as saviors though in most cases they were only comforters at the most. But in a time of mass destruction and agony this was more than sufficient for a dying young soldier. The author narrates this aspect of the female nurses with great affection and indulgence. (McEwen, 2006) The second text by Higonnet reveals more of personal account of the two most famous nurses from the United States, Mary Borden and Ellen N. La Motte. Their personal views of the First World War, as brought for forward by the author between the same covers, shows the inner world of the female nurses during the period of the war. These are women who saw the war extremely closely and thus narrates the extremely difficult practice of military medicine under ruthless conditions. Their accounts are often haunting and both reflects the dilemma of treatment where the patient for whom the nurses work so hard would ultimately return to the war zone either to be killed or to kill. At this point the text becomes very touching and humane but at the same time shows us the true position of the female nurses during the First World War. It appears that the female nurses were, in a sense, just comforting medium or toll provided by the government to heal their killing machines. It is true that this cost of war is often difficult to digest with its harsh realities of death and decay of the human mind where most of the humane principals are drained off under unbearable circumstances. But the nurses depict their accounts not only from the point of view of observers but from a point where it appears that they are actually cursing their need of healing the blood river. There is a certain point of motherhood or motherly feeling involved in their accounts. Their text not only becomes extremely important for determining the true position of the nurses during the First World War period but also presents us with humane narratives that are inspirational, thoughtful and moving. (Higonnet, 2001) Eileen Croftons The Women of Royaumont, A Scottish Women’s Hospital on the Western Front is a story of a hospital in Royaumont which was within few miles from the western front during the First World War. This story also tells the account of Miss Frances Ivens who works as a surgeon in this hospital. Miss Ivens was also responsible for the set up of this fully equipped hospital to serve the wounded soldiers from the front. This is a wonderful story about the personnel of this hospital where death and pain became a regular feature during the First World War period these were the people who never loosed any hope and lead life with hardship and service from 1915 to the end of the war in 1919. Here we find the daily life of the female nurses with their fear and hope and determination. It is a interesting notion to read the parts where they are seen celebrating Christmas or other such festive moods along with their heavy schedule where doctors were allowed on about three hours of sleep due to rush of patients. Here we find the whereabouts of the female nurses with details accounts such a number of patients during a specific period of time in the middle of the war and the total number of treatments along with details of maladies along with their race and religions. The writer makes us aware that these are personnel who worked amidst shells and gun fires and still maintained their high level of professional skills. Here we also find the aspects of humor, like the festivals or games, helped their moral to continue the harsh days of the First World War period. We also come across the diplomatic situation where the management handled the matter with well formulated strategies to survive. Thus this text reveals a huge amount of details that is needed to determine the position of nurses in the First World War period. We can easily understand the high position these women occupied in the minds of the patients but sadly the same was hardly true when it came to bureaucracy and government. If judged from Eileen Crofton’s point of view it was the outsiders who never shared the life of the nurses and failed to pay their due respect. But at the same time it is true that while evaluating the position of the female nurses during the period of the first World War it becomes certain that the elite of the society hardly paid any respects to these brave service providers even though some of the noted female nurse came from this class. However, the main concerns to the nurses were the well being of the soldiers and there they were highly respected and honored. Goldstein’s text presents a different angle to the entire discussion and along with it places a very interesting point of view too. Goldstein aims at the perspective that states that the impact of gender difference and the significance of gender differences are most visible during the period of war. Yet controversial arguments, and the dispersion of erudition across scholastic regulations, have covered understanding of the nature of war and its implementation on the aspects of gender. According to the writer the affect war cause on gender and the gender difference affect the nature of war is mutual and simultaneous. To venture this mode of circumstances the author explores the aspect of war in general throughout the history of human conflict and notes in a lively yet very authoritative manner that almost always women were excluded from direct combat situation. The write even indicates that this has been the general norm and it is applicable for all race and culture. However the author did mention and evaluated the incidents where the women fought in direct battlefield with much success. In the same context the author also mentions the nature of male complexity in the parameters of social behaviors cause mainly due to secretion of testosterone. This part is a very interesting topic as it looks upon the basic aspects of the concepts relating to the construction of femininity and masculinity under the parameters of war and particularly the First World War. To explain the issue the author illustrates the book into seven broad chapters that deals various aspects of war and the subsequent affects on women in general. The first chapter is A Puzzle: The Cross-Cultural Consistency of Gender Roles in War where the homogenous nature of women’s position is discussed in the light of war. The second chapter is named Women Warriors: The Historical Record of Female Combatants where the role of active participation is noted. The third chapter is Bodies: The Biology of Individual Gender where the author looks into the details of the differences between the sexes. The fourth chapter seeks the social position of women and it named Groups: Bonding, Hierarchy, and Social Identity. The fifth chapter deals with the representation of war as a means of construction of male identity and thus it is named Heroes: The Making of Militarized Masculinity. The sixth chapter is named Conquests: Sex, Rape, and Exploitation in Wartime and it looks into the brutal aspects of male dominance during war and thus reveals the detrimental affects that war causes in the ramification of the women. The last chapter concludes the entire scenario and tries to venture into the connection of women and war and thus it is named Reflections: The Mutuality of Gender and War. It should be mentioned that according to Goldstein the First World War included greater participation of women than before predominantly as nurses. However she points out that it is not natural for a human being to kill but during the First World War it was found that women along with men were forced to commit this act and according to the author this was a direct affect of the War. To prove the points the author presents a number of illustrations that includes drawings, graphics, photographs and related materials from numerous scholarly texts that include diverse academic disciplines. This book by Goldstein is a unique approach in the context of content and approach and it could well be stated that it is a fascinating book to read apart from being a book on a distinct issue that reflect much about the position of women during the WWI. (Goldstein, 2001) The article by Margaret H. Darrow titled French Volunteer Nursing and the Myth of War Experience in WWI is a true text to conclude this entire paper. This is because this article emphasizes on the aspects of the First World War and the involvement of women, particularly female nurses in it. Though it predominantly describes the details of women of France it is nevertheless reveals the position of women during the First World War and particularly about the nurses unlike Goldstein who presents the total perspective and the relation between woman and war. Darrow mentions that women were very much involved in the First World War than previous battles but it was mostly indirect in nature. She mentions that the women joined the jobs that were left behind by their men and even took active participation ministry of military affairs but maximum and direct involvement of the women in the First World War was as nurse. The author clearly mentions this and emphasize that the position of the women at this war was almost equivalent and important as that of the male doctors and it could be further stated that a huge amount of inspirations were drawn from the dedication to the service by the female nurse during the First World War. This is the most important point to be mentioned and this is what makes the involving of the female nurses relevant in the context of the First World War. (Darrow, 1996) In conclusion it should be stated that the being a part of a noble profession it was the opportunity for the female nurses of the First World War to gain importance to their community and help substantially to the ultimate cause of the purpose. It is true that they were often treated badly or were not given their dues for their hard works but if we take into consideration the basic position of women in the society or the importance that they enjoyed before the First World War it could be a well placed statement that the First World War provided a respected position for the female nurses in the cantonment and in the society as well.

Motivation to Learn: Teacher-Student Relationship

Motivation to Learn: Teacher-Student Relationship It is a generally accepted truth that the future lies in the hands of the next generation and that the success of the next generation is based largely on education. Increasing numbers of reports and articles in the media have been published over the last several years showing that education of the next generation in the U.S. is lacking. The long-standing super power stands to lose its status on the global playing field, threatening the way America has come to see itself and its role in the world. These trends have caused panic and politicians have claimed a rededication of their efforts in this arena because that is what the nation is crying for. However, while the belief that U.S. students are falling behind the world academically is wide-spread, and fact that this is an undesirable circumstance to be in is unanimous, no single concrete solution has emerged. The leading approach is currently raising standards as can be measured according to standardized tests. The idea is that without a quantifiable measure of progress schools cannot know whether they are improving and that by seeing how they are doing in comparison to other schools, they will be motivated to make even greater strides. It has been suggested that an emphasis on student motivation may be far more valuable than an emphasis on which specific facts theyve memorized from American history or which functions they can calculate in mathematics. While it may be somewhat counterintuitive to argue that education is best improved by focusing on something beside the material the students are expected to learn, many studies have shown that this very well might be the case. This is, in brief, due to the fact that motivated students learn more, learn better, and learn themselves. That is to say, the tradeoff is more than worth it: To dedicate some percentage of a teachers time and efforts to motivating students will translate at the end of the day to those students having learned a lot more than if that same time and effort was invested in conventional transfer of knowledge methods, or far worse, test preparation. Accordingly, many researchers have conducted a considerable number of studies on students academic motivation and students goal orientation, particularly those who concentrate on the dynamics of motivation within classroom settings, have started to emphasize the potential role of relational variables ( e.g., Davis, 2003; Pianta, 1999) and teacher behaviors (e.g., Skinner Belmont, 1993) in students academic engagement. In the last forty years, researches (e.g., Pintrich, 2001, Skinner, 1995, Stipek, 1988) have studied student motivation and, have found a great deal about: What moves students to learn and the quantity and quality of the effort they invest?, What choices students make?, What makes them persist in the face of hardship?, How student motivation is affected by their relationships with significant adults?, How motivation develops?, and How the school environment affects it?. Accordingly, educators, parents, and students have paid substantial attention to the importance of motivation in school because of significant contributions to students academic learning, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and school readiness. Motivation to learn is a competence acquired through general experience however, it is mostly stimulated through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (Brophy, 1987). Infants and young children appear to be mobilized by curiosity, driven by an intense need to explore, interact with, and discover their environment. In the classroom settings, the content covered and the social context can vary continuously. Therefore, children are frequently involved in unfamiliar learning environment. This can create ambiguity for some students; however can crate challenge for other students. Accordingly, students try to make sense of novel learning situations by referring to their motivational beliefs (Brophy, 1987). Motivational belief refers to the opinions, judgments, and values that students hold about objects, events, and learning process (Brophy, 1987). Motivational belief also refers to the students opinions of the efficacy or ef fectiveness of learning and teaching process. For example, childrens beliefs about their academic experiences have important implications for their school adjustment and academic achievement ( Mueller Dweck, 1998; Wigfield Eccles, 2002). Accordingly, expectancies and values are directly determined by other achievement related beliefs (e.g., achievement goals, self-schemata, beliefs about science (Wigfield, 1994). Similarly, motivational beliefs act as a frame of reference that guides students thinking, feelings, and actions in any subject area. For example, motivational beliefs about mathematics determine which strategies and motivational goals students develop. It is crucial that a students beliefs about a domain may be predominantly optimistic or pessimistic, thus providing a positive or negative context for learning ( Skinner, 1995; Stipek, 1988; Vermeer, Boekaerts, Seegers, 2000). Teacher-child relations play a prominent role in the development of competencies in early school-age years (Pianta, Steinberg, Rollins, 1995; Pianta Walsh, 1996) and transition to middle school (Davis. 2003; Pianta, 1999). Teacher may operate as social agents, and they can affect the students intellectual and sociemotional experiences by creating a classroom setting that stimulates both students motivation and learning. Moreover teacher-student relationships serve as a regulatory function for the development of social, emotional, and academic skills (Davis, 2006). Studies have shown that positive teacher-student relationships can lead to a warm classroom environment that facilitates successful adaptation in school and thereby increase students motivation to learn. On the other hand, conflictual teacher-student relationships are associated with lower achievement and self-esteem as well as ongoing relational conflict with both teachers and peers (Pianta Hamre, 2005; Buyse, Verschuere n, Doumen, Damme, Maes, 2008). Research has further indicated that children with whom teachers report positive relationships are outgoing and socially competent (Pianta, et. all., 1995; Birch Ladd, 1998). Moreover, the teachers believed that high quality relationships between teachers and their students enhanced classroom learning and motivation by building a safe and supportive classroom context for students to open up and listen to the teachers and take intellectual risks (Pianta, et al., 1995; Birch Ladd, 1998).Similarly, the beliefs teachers hold about teaching and learning, and the nature of expectations have about their students also exert a powerful influence (Stipek, 1988). These findings support the key role of teacher-student relationships on childrens motivation to learn and school adjustment. The various studies examined the influence of family, academic, and personal factors on the students academic failure and poor motivation to learn (e.g., Covington, 1992). Among personal variables most studied are self-concept, unfavorable motivational beliefs, low ability, and personal goal orientation (Ryan Deci, 2000; Stipek, 2002). For example, unfavorable beliefs impede the learning process because they direct the learners attention away from learning activity itself (Stipek, 1998; Ryan, Gheen, Midgley, 1998). Similarly, the students themselves attribute to poor performance to low ability and to luck (Stipek, 2002) and an improvement in performance to motivation (task-goal orientation), to self-regulating behaviors, and to competence as a function of task characteristics ( Stipek, 2002). Most students believe their ability and effort are the main reasons for school achievement. By the same token, if asked whether they would prefer to be called smart or hard-working, they will choose smart almost every time. Why? Because they believe that hard-working students risk being considered either excessively ambitious or of limited ability, both of which they would find embarrassing. The following literature review covers the significance of young childrens motivation to learn, the effects of the quality of teacher-student relationships on their motivation to learn, the implications of poorly motivated young students on their social and academic life. Firstly, two relevant theoretical frameworks are introduced: self-determination and expectancy and value theory. These theories provide the basis of the rationale for the present study and frame the possible bridging point from the problem to where the attempted solutions until this point failed, and what is worth trying next. Theoretical Considerations Further understanding of the topics of motivation and learning is facilitated through the lenses of various theoretical frameworks. These frameworks shed insight on the bigger picture of motivation and learning and are helpful guides in developing practical new approaches to the classroom. Three major relevant theories are discussed below: self-determination and value-expectancy for achievement motivation As children continue their social, emotional, and physical development during school years, they broaden their familial and extra-familial relationships (Marvin Stewart, 1990). Participation in family-child, teacher-child, and peer-child systems supports the development of play, social interaction, and conflict resolution skills for those children (Lynch Cicchetti, 1992; Pianta, 1999). Self-System and Self-Determination Theories Self-determination theorists (e.g., Ryan, Connell, Deci) claim that children start to value the behaviors for which they and significant others (i.e., teachers, families) in their social environments are reinforced. When these values are accepted as their own (internalization), students begin to choose to engage in activities that are consistent with their own feelings (Deci Ryan, 2001).Similarly, according to self-determination theory, children learn from their parents and other significant adults that achievement behaviors and motivation to learn are valued in the society. Some children internalize these values and behaviors as their own and begin to behave in ways that are consistent with them (Connell, 1990). Accordingly, Connell (1990) posits that the need for relatedness, the need for competence, and the need for autonomy are the most important psychological needs in the framework of self-system processes. The self-system theory of engagement assumes that human beings have bas ic psychological needs and can be motivated to engage in activities passionately and voluntarily when those needs are met (Connell Wellborn, 1991). In addition, in the self- system process, the self evaluates the degree to which psychological needs are met and this evaluation may affect relationships with others (Connell, 1990 ;). Self-determination theory shares this perspective (Davis, 2001; Deci Ryan, 1985) and has also contributed to the construct definition of relatedness by proposing that individuals innate needs (e.g., the need for competence, the need for relatedness, and the need for autonomy) must be fulfilled to achieve self-regulation, motivation, and personal well-being. Deci and Ryan (1985) defined the need for relatedness as feelings of security or belongingness in the social environment that motivate individuals to follow norms and rules. Moreover, all three needs are interrelated. For example, relatedness provides the security that is necessary for student initiat ive, independence, and autonomy in completing tasks that promote competence. Competence enables students to feel confident, accepted, and related to those around them. The healthy fulfillment of these basic needs provides a social environment that regulates the amount of acceptance and success (Urdan Schoenfelder, 2006; Deci Ryan, 2002). The teacher-student relationship is a very important and a powerful motivator for the development of the need for competence and autonomy within this social environment, because school as a complex and unique system asks students to accomplish various intellectual and social tasks. For example, a growing body of studies showed that students, who believed that they are competent academically, are more likely to be interested in academic and school tasks ( Stipek Daniels,1991; Skaalvik Rankin, 1995). Similarly, for teachers, supporting childrens basic psychological needs and provide a healthy classroom environment also promote more positive teacher-student relationships. Within this type of environment, students report grea ter levels of competence, autonomy, and positive relatedness (Connell Wellborn, 1991; Standage, Duda, Ntoumanis, 2005; Urdan Schoenfelder, 2006; Deci Ryan, 2002). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation Another important alternative and complementary theoretical view of students motivation to learn in educational settings is expectancy-value theory (Atkinson, 1957; Eccles, Adler, Goff, Kaczala, Meece, Midgley, 1983). Eccles and her colleagues (1983) studies values in the context of an expanded expectancy- value theory. This model is consisted of two components: a psychological component which focuses on cognitive factors such as expectations for success and the values placed on successful attainment, and a socialization component which explains individual differences that occur within the variables of the psychological component (Eccles et al., 1983). A major premise of this model involves the influence of parental socialization on childrens motivation ( Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield, 1994). Like Atkinson (1957), they posited that people choose to engage in tasks that they value and in which they expect to be successful. However, Eccles et al. (1983) conceptualized and defined valu es more broadly than Atkinson (1957). Similarly, they proposed that there are three kinds of values (e.g., attainment value, utility value, intrinsic value) relevant to achievement ( Jacobs Eccles, 2000; Wigfield Eccles, 1992). Attainment value refers to the relevance of an activity to a persons actual or ideal self-concept, and it is determined by how tasks satisfy peoples needs (Eccles et al., 1983). Accordingly, attainment value is the most closely related to internalized motivation in self-determination theory. Utility value is related to the usefulness of a task as a means to accomplish goals that may not be linked to the task itself. Intrinsic value is defined as the immediate enjoyment people get from doing a task. In other words, as a task has intrinsic value , people engage in for its own sake, rather than for some other purpose (Wigfield Eccles, 1992). Furthermore, Eccles et al. (1983) pointed out that values need to be considered in the context of costs such as that hu miliation if failure occurs. Motivation for Academic Achievement If testing is not the way to get students to learn, what is? It has been proposed that the single factor with the greatest impact on whether a student learns is his or her motivation. As mentioned above, motivation is considered one of, if not the, most important factors influencing students learning. Qin Xiaoqing (2002) found that the presence of absence of motivation is in large part what determines success or failure in second language learning. This is because motivated students use learning strategies more frequently, have a stronger will to learn and so set more and higher goals for themselves, and they are more persistent in learning. Qin (2003) found that learning motivation influences the learners autonomous learning ability, and determines the learners confidence in overcoming learning difficulty. These theories on motivation demonstrate that motivation, as one of the crucial factors determining the success in language learning, attracts much attention of the researchers (L i Pan, 2009). What is motivation? While different theorists define motivation differently, motivation is commonly thought of as an inner state of need or desire that activates an individual to do something to satisfy them. In other words, motivation is the force that accounts for the arousal, selection, direction, and continuation of behavior (Li Pan, 2009). Williams and Burden (2000) proposed the definition of motivation as a state of cognitive and emotional arousal that leads to a conscious decision to act, and which causes the exertion of intellectual and physical effort towards reaching a previously set goal. In day to day language, motivation is why we do what we do. Therefore, it is clear why so much education research is focused on motivating students: If motivation is why we do what we do, only a motivated student will learn. It is increasingly accepted in the literature that motivation is more important to a childs education than any other single factor including the teachers skill/exper ience, classroom resources, etc. What role does motivation play in achievement? It has been argued that motivation is not only the key ingredient for outstanding work, but also in extraordinary achievement. The claim is that creative genius grows out of the ability to sustain intense commitment for very long periods in the face of obstacles-in other words, motivation (Runco, Nemiro, Walberg, 1998). However, on the other hand is the widespread believe that accomplishment, and especially outstanding accomplishment, is about innate talent. People who believe this somehow ignore the fact that Mozart, Darwin, Michal Jordan, and Tiger Woods practiced feverishly and single-mindedly for years, and instead believe that they were simply born with a talent that if one is not born with cannot not be achieved regardless of how motivation or any other factor controllable (Dwek, 2002). Proponents of the first belief however, that motivation and not talent is the core ingredient for success, have developed various ways to bring that motivation to the classroom towards students academic achievement. One major school of thought is called progressive education. This approach is centered on the importance of the genuine interest of the students (Simmons Page, 2010). A students interest or motivation can stem from innumerable factors and vary depending on the student, of course. Researchers in the field have categorized stuent motivations into two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic. A student who is intrinsically motivated commits him or herself to a task for its own sake, that is, for the enjoyment of it, the learning it allows, and for a feeling of accomplishment. A student who is extrinsically motivated comits to a task in order to receive a reward from a source external to him or herself such as from the teacher (Macabudbud, Alba, Jestony, Dadis,Diaz, Realiza, Ven tura, 2009).Understanding these different motivations is important when translating the theoretical ideas of the importance of motivating students into practical ways to do so. The Implications of Young Childrens Motivation to Learn Many young children begin school with a thirst for learning. Similarly, Goldberg (1994) pointed out that young children enthusiastically seek novel and challenging school tasks and therefore, motivation is key to successful school adjustment. Motivation can be defined as the process that helps instigate goal directed activity, and enables that activity to be maintained (Pintrich Schunk, 1996). Positive motivational patterns are crucial for learning in early childhood as they are for later learning (Carlton Winsler, 1998). Intrinsic motivation refers to the desire to participate in a task only for the pleasure derived from a task itself, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to the desire to participate in a task for the sake of a desirable outcome such as teacher praise or a reward (Pintrich Schunk, 1996). Gottfried (1985) hypothesized that academic intrinsic motivation is positively and significantly related to school achievement. Gottfried (1985) found that children, who are more intrinsically motivated, are more successful learners than those with more extrinsically motivated. Accordingly, inhibiting the development of intrinsic motivation in early childhood education and schools have been criticized (Broophy, 1998). It is noteworthy to first understand how motivation relates to education and how motivation affects the childrens social and academic competence. Similarly, Fortier (1995) examined the effects of autonomous academic motivation on perceived academic self-competence and perceived academic self-determination. He showed that perceived academic competence and perceived academic self-determination positively influenced autonomous academic motivation, which in turn had a positive impact on school and the development of intrinsic motivation. Moreover, Boggiano, Shields, Barrett, Thompson, Simons, and Katz (1992) found that motivational orientation is significantly related to childrens standardized achievement scores. Specifically, young students with a n intrinsic motivational orientation got higher reading and math achievement scores than their classroom mates with extrinsic motivational orientation (Boggiano, et al., 1992). Together, this indicates that intrinsic motivational orientation contributes to a range of achievement-related behaviors and cognitions. School readiness as a multidimensional concept includes childrens approaches to learning (i.e., emergent literacy and math skills) (Kagan Neuman, 1997). Moreover, school readiness is a significant indication of a childs ability to be successful in school settings. In previous research with older children (e.g., Stipek, 1998; Ryan Connell, 1989; Harter, 1992), motivation has showed as an important factor for learning, academic success, and social development. Similarly, Carlton (1999) showed that childrens motivation to learn is an important predictor of school readiness and the development of social skills. Another important alternative and complementary theoretical view of students motivation to learn in educational settings is achievement goal theory (Miserandino, 1998). Achievement goal theory provided insights in order to examine students motivation and achievement-related outcomes (Ames, 1992 ; Walters, 2004). Achievement goals can be defined as the purposes and reasons for a persons pursuit in achievement situation. Different purposes and reasons lead to different emotional, cognitive, and affective patterns (Dweck Leggett, 1988 ; Urdan Midgley, 2003). There have been considerable amount of researches (e.g., Elliot McGregor, 2001; Elliot Thrash, 2001) that showed the effects of achievement goals on students motivation to learn. For example, Kaplan, Gheen, and Midgley (2002) examined the relationship between classroom goal structure and student disruptive behavior. They (2002) found that student perceptions of a mastery goal structure were related to lower incidence of behavior al problems and disruptive behaviors whereas student perceptions of a performance approach goal structure were related to higher incidence of behavioral problems and disruptive behaviors. Ames (1992) pointed out that mastery orientation is associated with depth engagement with the task and greater perseverance in the face of failure or barriers and thereby, mastery orientation increases the individuals intrinsic motivation, then in turn, motivation to learn. Previous researches examining childrens expectancy-related beliefs about different achievement tasks showed that childrens expectancy-related beliefs play a central role in their achievement motivation and contribute to their behavior and learning (Eccles et al., 1983; Meece Courtney, 1992). For example, young children who have positive ability beliefs and approach achievement tasks with a high expectancy of success, consistently show high levels of persistence and performance on achievement tasks (Eccles et al., 1983). Similarly, childrens expectancies and values themselves are most directly affected by childrens achievement goals, their self-schemata, and their task-specific beliefs. Values also influence students intentions and decisions about the course enrollment (Meece Courtney, 1992). Furthermore, values affect the perception of self-competence and self-esteem (Eccles et al.,1983). Accordingly, Dweck and Elliott (1983) posited that how learning and performance goals are dete rmined by childrens subjective values. For instance, the kind of achievement situation the child is in influence the childs subjective values. The child, who believes he or she is competent at a certain task, believes that achievement of similar tasks in the future is possible and easy and so competence belief and expectancy for success are directly related (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield Eccles, 1992). For examples, achievement values in school tasks (i.e., mathematic) can influence self-perceptions of competence (Covington, 1992). Previous research also suggested that early achievement and socialization experiences and cultural norms can influence how elementary and high-school students understand, interpret, and approach achievement (Eccles et al. 1983 ; Meece, Parsons, Kaczala, Goff, Futterman, 1982). Similarly, studies of junior and senior high school students demonstrated that the subjective task values adolescents attach to school subjects are related to their course plans, activity choices ( Eccles, Adler, Meece, 1984; Meece, Wigfleld, Eccles, 1990). For example, in their study of junior high school students, Meece and colleagues (1990) found that the importance students attached to mathematics predicted their intentions to continue taking mathematics. Eccles and Harold (1991) examined adolescents self-perceptions of ability, subjective task values, and activity choices in sports. They reported that adolescents self-reports of free time involvement in sports was significantly related to their subjective task values of sports. However, there is paucity of investigation of effects of motivation to learn on young childrens learning. Accordingly, focusing on young school childrens expectations and values using the expectancy-value model and the effects of may contribute to our understanding about childrens development of motivational values and expectancy and in early school years. A number of researchers (e.g., Stipek Mac Iver, 1989; Wigfield, Eccles, Mac Iver, Reuman, Midgley, 1991) also showed that young childrens beliefs about their ability and expectancies for success are overly optimistic and are not realistic. Young children perceive themselves as competent and they nearly always think that they will be successful on the upcoming tasks. However, as children progress through elementary school, their ability beliefs and expectancies for success may demonstrate a substantial change, and their beliefs about their ability and expectancies become more accurate and realistic (Stipek, 1984; Wigfleld Eccles, 1992). Although there can be age related differences in childrens motivational belief, perceived academic self-competence, perceived academic self-determination, the quality of teacher-student relationships, classroom achievement goal structure also play a significant role in young students motivation to learn and their motivational belief ( Eccles et al., 1983; Pianta, 1999; Stipek, 2002). Therefore, it is very crucial to further investigate and demonstrate the effects of aforementioned factors in young children motivation to learn, and in turn, how young childrens motivation to learn influence the development of social and academic competence. Teacher-Student Relationship and Young Childrens Motivation to Learn It is widely recognized that when children enter school or transient to next level, they encounter a variety of new challenges. These include creating positive relationships with peer groups and adults in the school environment as well as learning to meet the demands of a wide range of cognitive, social, and academic tasks (Pianta et al., 1995; Birch Ladd, 1997; Baker, 2006). Teacher-child relationships play a prominent role in the development of competencies in the preschool and early school years (Hamre Pianta, 2001; Pianta Walsh, 1996). Teacher may operate as social agents, and they can affect the students intellectual and sociemotional experiences by creating a classroom setting that stimulates both students motivation and learning. Moreover teacher-student relationships serve as a regulatory function for the development of social, emotional, and academic skills (Davis, 2006). Similarly, young children who enjoy taking positive supports from teachers and having warm and close relationships with them appear to demonstrate social and academic competence at school (Pianta, 1999). A growing body of research examined the effects of the quality of teacher-student dyadic interaction on students academic motivation (e.g., Davis Ashley, 2003; Pianta, 1999). In fact, the degree to which children develop social and academic competencies in their school lives is a good indicator of successful school adaptation and positive teacher as well as peer relationship (Birch Ladd, 1997; Pianta, et. all., 1995). For example, Davis and Ashley (2003) reported that positive teacher-student interaction enhanced classroom learning and students motivation by building a safe and supportive context for students to motivate for learning and take intellectual risks. In addition, teachers believed that students tended to work hard if they liked their teachers and had caring relations with their teachers. Therefore, teachers in Daviss and Ashleys study (David Ashley, 2003) preferred to invest the time and effort for the development of supportive relations with their students. In additio n, those positive and caring relations helped the teachers to be creative in their instruction. Accordingly, Davis (2006) found that middle school students and teachers, who perceived their relations as a supportive and positive, reported enhanced motivation, more facilitative classroom settings, and higher grades. Similarly, Birch and Ladd (1997) found that supportive teacher-student relationship plays an important role in developing school adjustment competencies including attention, motivation, problem-solving, and self esteem. Together, when teachers provided more autonomy and the instruction addressed students personal interest and personal relevance, they were more emotionally and behaviorally engaged in school works and they had more supportive relationships with their teachers. Similarly, those students, who reported higher levels of autonomy provided by their teacher, showed more adaptive patterns of learning (David Ashley, 2003; Stipek, 2002). Accordingly, previous researches (e.g., Patrick, Hicks, Ryan, 1997; Patrick, Ryan, Kaplan, 2007; Ryan Patrick, 2001) have indicated that there is a significant relationship between students adaptive motivation for academics and a number of social factors within the classroom. These include teacher-student relationship, teacher support ( Midgley, Feldlaufer, Ecles, 1988), and teacher practices that foster respect among students ( Ryan Patrick, 2001; Patrick, Ryan, Kaplan, 2007). Similarly, Patrick, Anderman, Ryan, Edelin, and Midgley (2001) examined how teacher-student interaction influences both students classrooms goal-orientation structure. They found that teachers apparent support and enthusiasm toward students progress and their confidence in students ability to learn were accompanied by teachers recognition practices and their teaching styles. Their relationships with students were characterized by supporting students academic engagement and giving warm praise. Teachers en couraged their students to focus on task and informational feedback. In mastery-approach classroom, all teachers perceived learning as active process in which classroom involvement, positive interactions, understanding (not memorization), student engagement are key requirements of student academic achievement and motivation. On the oth

Developmental Psychology Theoretical Approaches Essay -- essays resear

Overview Four theoretical approaches to cognitive development Piaget’s theory Information processing theories Core knowledge theories Sociocultural theories (Vygotsky) General Themes Nature and nurture Continuity vs. discontinuity Active vs passive child Nurture (environment, learning) John Locke (1632-1704) –Infant’s mind as â€Å"tabula rasa† Behaviorism (e.g. Watson, Skinner) Nurture (environment, learning) 'A child's mind is a blank book. During the first years of his life, much will be written on the pages. The quality of that writing will affect his life profoundly.‘ Walt Disney Nature (biology, instinct) Children, like plants, simply â€Å"bloom†, following a timetable laid out in their genes (Gesell, 1933) â€Å"instinct is stronger than upbringing.† --Irish proverb How would a blank slate learn? Word learning ‘by association’ Word learning ‘by association’ Problems with association? category individual part color state of mind Jean Piaget (1896-1980) ‘Constructivist’ Child plays an active role in achieving developmental outcomes Stage like discontinuity Piaget â€Å"the study of stages of intelligence is first a study of the formation of operational structures. I shall define every stage by a structure of a whole, with the possibility of its integration into succeeding stages, just as it was prepared by preceding stages...

Types of Conversation Essay -- Communication, Misunderstanding

Question 1: Describe the situation and why the conversation will be a difficult one. This August, during my short vacation back home, I am planning to have a difficult conversation with a former fellow who I have known three years ago while I was serving in the Taiwanese Armed Forces. We were best friends at that time; however, due to a series of misunderstanding occurred in the last month of our service, we stopped talking to each other ever since and eventually became estranged. Now every time when I look back at our withering friendship, I cannot help but feel regret about it. And I am planning to have a difficult conversation with this friend, trying to recover our long past friendship. It will be a difficult conversation for us for several reasons. First, we have not stayed in touch since our discharge from the armed forces. Several years have passed and now it seems imperative that we re-establish an effective communication channel and get to re-know each other in the shortest possible time. Second, when dealing with the â€Å"what happened† conversation, we must manage to revisit all the misunderstanding occurred two years ago, so that we are able to exchange our stories. Lastly, we need to properly and openly express our feelings, a challenging situation that I am not comfortable with. Considering all these factors, I anticipate our conversation to be both a difficult and a challenging one. Question 2: Discuss the what happened conversation. The â€Å"what happened† conversation centers on a disagreement generated by misunderstanding between two parties (Heen et al, p.26, 2010). In such a difficult conversation, we must first understand that it is rarely about getting the facts right, but rather, it is about conflicting percep... ...ore about his story and recognize the misunderstanding involved, but also directly encourage him to reveal more of his story. This will lead to effective communication between us. Second, I must speak for myself with clarity and power, so that I can express what I am thinking and feeling. As I am usually not a confident speaker, some preparations will help me identify the key issues in my story, so that I can give him the whole spectrum of my story during our conversation. I must provide the context and the development of my feelings during those past events to help him understand me better. By carefully examining all the above-mentioned tactics, I found that a difficult conversation is all about communication. By openly expressing my story and actively listening to his story, I should feel confident that I will eventually succeed in such a difficult conversation.

Noram Foods

Noram Foods Noram Foods is considering changing their current policy on package weight standards. The current policy states that 95% of packages are to be greater than the stated net weight. However, management believes a more accurate control policy could reduce costs for Noram foods while insuring net weight does not fall below the stated amount. Current issues: Specifically regarding the pre-cooked cereal line Noram Foods has initiated the 95% weight policy to ensure stated weight specifications are met.This relatively high percentage is due to increased regulations, undeveloped technology, and negative consumer response towards under weighted packages. This has motivated Norman to establish reputability by choosing this control policy. Additional considerations include: * Addressing flexibility of a 95% standard * Updated, precise technology is expensive – What is the ROI? Is there on marginal value added? * Keeping norms within government specifications * Preservation of positive company reputation Lower product deviation without falling under stated weight * Overweight packages creates higher cost and decreased profit margin * Underweight packages leads to consumer and governmental reaction and inefficiency due to under-utilization of capacity Current Policy Analysis Option 1: Keep Current Control Policy(=95%) With Option 1, Norman Foods will be able to maintain the 95% weight policy and seek cost reduction in another area to increase their profit margin. Potential Cost Reducing Opportunities: * Reduce the rotation schedule of control operators – i. . rotate every ? day instead of every ? hour * Leads to improvement in efficiency due to less shifting of human resources * Increased total output * Mid-shift change could assist control operators dealing with redundancy * Seek possible technological improvements with the weighing instruments * Decrease inefficiency Potential Consequential Issues: * Probable high turnover rate to due mundane * Co uld led to an increase in HR costs due to recruiting and training new people Option 2: Reduce current standard (< 95%) Graph 1 Retrieved from: www. ublicecon. com With Option 2, Noram Foods would be required to test and analyze various percentage points below the current 95% standard and, as Graph 1 demonstrates, doing so until an equilibrium is achieved between costs incurred and control not falling below LCL. Possible Consequential Issues: * Reducing the current standard would result in a decrease in standard deviation * Increased risk of falling below the lower control limit * Additional problems may be created * Additional value through cost reduction is added through the rectification of arising issues.Our Analysis Moreover, the company shuts down the operation when outliers fall below the LCL. However, when the process produces outliers that are above the UCL, the machine continues to operate. Noram Foods should develop a cost/benefit analysis to conclude at what level of uppe r outliers creates excessive costs. Based on Exhibit 4 that concerns the Consumer Packaging and Labeling Act, Noram Foods should have a warning system that signifies that the package has exceeded its required tolerance level of ~7. 5 grams. This will reduce unnecessary cost.The operator working at a particular station should be in charge of making sure the weight is within control limits. The company should create incentives to keep control operators motivated while performing these mind numbing tasks. We propose that for every year that a control operator completes their processes while staying in the specified range, they receive personal recognition from the company. This could take the form of an award or plaque offered by the manager. The added incentive can increase employee productivity and moral, thereby reducing turnover.